ࡱ> Fi!HGl,F`bd l*-H/|//////2:A  !d`  !dFl0JLNl*D^xz|  !d`  !d Thinking God By Sergio Caltagirone Religion and Science THE, Section A Fr. Thomas Hosinski, Ph.D.  TIME \@ "d MMMM yyyy" 25 November 2002 On the cold, stone floor of a monastery, a Buddhist monk meditates silently. As he sits, all becomes quiet and still, while an intense focus begins. As the trance gets deeper, and deeper, the world around him suddenly becomes inadequate. Soon, he feels himself lifted above his normal consciousness into a plane of unity and oneness with all creation. Everything he knows melts away, even the self; subjective becomes objective, and objective becomes subjective until there is no difference between the ego and the universe all is one. On the other side of the world, a Catholic nun is praying in a church pew. After everyone has left, she is alone to tend to her own thoughts. For 45 minutes she sits with her eyes closed and mouth shut; however her mind is active as ever, repeating an internal prayer until abruptly - God grants her the gift of revelation and allows her to enter a higher state of consciousness. In this place, the nun says that, An immeasurable sweetness was given to me, so that I felt as if my soul was separated from my body. And the sweetness of all names, the name of Jesus Christ, was given to me with such a great fervor of his love, that I could pray nothing but a continuous saying that was instilled in me by the divine power of God and that I could not resist and of which I can write nothing, except to say that the name of Jesus Christ was in it continually.  However, like the Buddhist monk experiencing oneness with all, the Sisters encounter with God ends quickly and her thoughts are back to the real world.  Mystical experiences with the divine play an important part of our lives whether we are religious or not. Take for example standing in the middle of a forest, the moon is full and the wind is warm, looking up to the tops of the swaying trees and feeling the wind on your face causes you to feel that you are part of nature, a small, but important piece of the grand design. This feeling of awe in nature is a very common mystical experience in all cultures; we categorize the experience as mystical because it causes us to lose our ego and gain a sense of union with something larger, however it is only a momentary taste of the essence of religious mystical experience.  In an emerging research area, neurotheology, neurobiologists are attempting explain religious experience as a set of neurobiological processes in the human brain. However, although the science is sound, the conclusions of some neurotheologians raise important philosophical and theological questions, which, in the end, show that their logic and perspective are irrational and incomplete. Yet, although there are problems with the conclusions of some, we are able to compatiblize the theories and results of neuroscience with theology and philosophy in such a way as to encourage dialogue between them, and possibly create a comprehensive and inclusive worldview. Here, we will analyze and critique three specific claims of neuroscientists which present serious implications with regard to theology and philosophy, these are: theological reductionism, religious segregation, and physicalism. Still, before we tackle these complex and serious issues, one must be versed in the processes and conclusions of neuroscientists studying religious experience. Yet, even before this can take place, one must understand the organ with which these scientists are working: the brain. The Brain In this corner, weighing in at roughly 3.5 pounds, with the responsibility of recording, conceptualizing, and communicating, from your own craniumTHE BRAIN! It is the most complex organ in the human body, which also explains why it is also the least understood. Using both chemical and physical processes, it is able to absorb the incredible amount of information received from the senses, record it in memory, analyze it, form an appropriate response, and then finally, cause the actualization of the response. The organ itself is located, of course, in the skull atop the body, connected by the brain stem to the spinal cord. In a reductionistic sense, millions of tiny receivers and transmitters known as neurons make up the cortex (the gray matter in the brain); however, connected in a myriad of ways, these neurons form complex networks, which tend to specialize in certain human functions. The cortex contains four primary specialized networks, named lobes: the temporal, frontal, parietal, and occipital. The temporal lobe is primarily responsible for language, conceptual thinking, analytical thought, and most other abstract reasoning functions that make us unique in the animal kingdom. The frontal lobe is responsible for attention, and initiating muscle activity, while the parietal lobe is concerned about sensory perceptions, visual-spatial tasks, and body orientation. The final lobe in the brain is the occipital lobe, and is associated with our vision. Yet, the lobes are intertwined and interact in a seamless manner although they have been described separately. For example, say the temporal lobe requires more information about a certain element in the environment, a message is then sent to the parietal lobe which moves the eyes and sends new information to the occipital lobe, which, in turn, forwards the necessary information to the temporal lobe. Additionally, the brain divides itself into two hemispheres, the left, and the right. It has been understood traditionally, that the left hemisphere receives information and controls motor activity from the right side of the body, while the right hemisphere provides the same function for the left side. Nonetheless, the two hemispheres of the brain also provide separate and individual functions. The left hemisphere associates itself with communication and analytical thought functions. On the other hand, the right hemisphere works in a more abstract, holistic way, as a center of non-verbal thought, visual-spatial perceptions, and the perception, modulation, and expression of emotions. Besides the lobes and the hemispheres of the brain, Newberg and DAquili identify four specific areas of the brain that provide additional functions important to understanding and responding the world around us: the visual association area, the orientation association area, the attention association area, and the verbal conceptual association area. Newberg adds, These structures are called association areas because they gather together, or associate, neural information from various parts of the brain. The visual association area combines images from the occipital lobe with information from other areas, such as memory, and olfactory (taste/smell sense) to provide the cortex with an image that includes context and dimensionality. It is responsible for giving meaning to our visual perception of the world. For example, when one sees the brown crust of an apple pie, it will be immediately associated with memories of the smell of a previous crust and its crunchy texture in the mouth. Moreover, if someone had a bad experience with an apple pie, such as choking, then that experience would also be associated with the image of apple pie and perhaps the person would be reluctant to eat it again. Newberg and DAquili also, and logically in my estimation, make this area responsible for the power we give religious symbols that we see because they are associated with religious emotions and experiences. Neuroscience Neuroscientists aim to address two goals, what does the brain do and how does it do it. PAGE  Caltagirone  PAGE 5  J. Kabat-Zinn, Wherever You Go, There You Are: Mindful Meditation in Everyday Life (New York: Hyperion 1994) cited by Andrew Newberg, Eugene DAquili and Vince Rause, in Why God Wont Go Away (New York: Ballantine Books 2001) 98-9.  Although these are contrived mystical experiences, they mirror every mystical experience recorded.  Andrew Newberg, Eugene DAquili and Vince Rause, Why God Wont Go Away (New York: Ballantine Books 2001) 113.  Andrew Newberg, Eugene DAquili and Vince Rause, Why God Wont Go Away (New York: Ballantine Books 2001) 20.  Newberg, Why God Wont Go Away 21.  Ibid., 24-32.  Ibid., 24-5. kl lllpxl(BDFl(BDF  !d  !d`123456789:;$a$ !&"O"$;P_zh( ) k  q-0!!&"/"&`#$  !d`  !d^d$a$/"0"1"M"N"O"8## $z$$$$$$*R&ZL[f[h[j[\dkk  !d  !d`&`#$h]htical experiences. The third area defined by Newberg and D Aquili is the attention association area. It is here that goals in our existence are put into action. 6  Ibid., 27. 1;_z{& ' i j +,./&"'"-"."/"1"B"C"I"J"K"L"O"P"`"""#8#9##### $ $?$S$z${$$$$$$$$(RH[J[L[N[j[\eekkkklllpy>*0JmHnHu0J j0JU j0JUCJ$mHnHu jCJ$UCJ$CJ0Rle photon emission computed tomography)  measuring blood flow through a radioactive dye injected into the bloodstream. 7 Ibid., 24-5. Ibid., 27.  Ibid., 29.  Ibid., 31.  Ibid., 32.  The orientation association area is the second of four areas discussed. Here, because it is located in the  posterior section of the parietal lobe, has the ability to receive information about the body s sense of touch, vision, and hearing; this ability uniquely enables it to define the body s orientation with the rest of the universe (defined as everything one has experienced first hand). This orientation defined by the area is responsible, Newberg and D Aquili argue, for our sense of self and not-self (what is us and what is not us). Without this sense we would not be able to function in the environment because we would constantly be thinking the chair we were standing next to was part of us or that our arm was part of the chair  this would clearly lead to an impossible view of the world. The researchers concede that the process in which this occurs is not well known, but furthermore conclude that this area of the brain could be directly responsible for sensations reported in mystical experiences. The third area defined by Newberg and D Aquili is the attention association area.  The attention association area,& , plays a major role in governing complex, integrated bodily movements and behaviors associated with attaining goals.  For example, if our goal is to get some food, then we must negotiate through a series of obstacles, in the case some doors, some walls, a chair or two, and then maybe the refrigerator, all of which require a central governor to coordinate our movements towards the goal. However, this example does the area an injustice because it is even more important than just simple goal orientated movements. Newberg and D Aquili suggest that other researcher, as well as themselves, see this area as the center of our will  our ability to intentionally form thoughts that focus our attention on a goal and then attempt to actualize it. It is important in religious experience, they continue, because of its control of our emotional responses, which play a key role in religion. The last association area to describe is the verbal conceptual association area. It is this area s responsibility to  generate abstract concepts and relating those concepts to words.  This function includes naming and categorizing objects, articulating consciousness through language, and higher-order logical functions. Researchers associate a high level of activity in this area to a subject s responsiveness to religious language and ideas. Each of these areas working together are responsible for producing the lucid, fluid, and understandable consciousness that we know. Without these areas our world would simply be a jumble of disorientating, independent events and sensations, void of context and emotion. Now that we have studied the architecture of the cortex,  The orientation association area is the second of four areas discussed. Here, because it is located in the  posterior section of the parietal lobe, has the ability to receive information about the body s sense of touch, vision, and hearing; this ability uniquely enables it to define the body s orientation with the rest of the universe (defined as everything one has experienced first hand). This orientation defined by the area is responsible, Newberg and D Aquili argue, for our sense of self and not-self (what is us and what is not us). Without this sense we would not be able to function in the environment because we would constantly be thinking the chair we were standing next to was part of us or that our arm was part of the chair  this would clearly lead to an impossible view of the world. The researchers concede that the process in which this occurs is not well known, but furthermore conclude that this area of the brain could be directly responsible for sensations reported in mystical experiences. The third area defined by Newberg and D Aquili is the attention association area.  The attention association area,& , plays a major role in governing complex, integrated bodily movements and behaviors associated with attaining goals.  For example, if our goal is to get some food, then we must negotiate through a series of obstacles, in the case some doors, some walls, a chair or two, and then maybe the refrigerator, all of which require a central governor to coordinate our movements towards the goal. However, this example does the area an injustice because it is even more important than just simple goal orientated movements. Newberg and D Aquili suggest that other researcher, as well as themselves, see this area as the center of our will  our ability to intentionally form thoughts that focus our attention on a goal and then attempt to actualize it. It is important in religious experience, they continue, because of its control of our emotional responses, which play a key role in religion. 6  Ibid., 27.  yyZ\hjچ܆(*FؓړZ\hjڠܠ(*FثګZ\hj02NZ\hj*,DF^`|Z\hj,.FHd Z\hj0JmHnHu j0JU_x, lets move on to the research that has studied this immensely complex and fascinating organ.7 Ibid., 24-5. Ibid., 27.  Ibid., 29.  Ibid., 31.  Ibid., 32.  The orientation association area is the second of four areas discussed. Here, because it is located in the  posterior section of the parietal lobe, has the ability to receive information about the body s sense of touch, vision, and hearing; this ability uniquely enables it to define the body s orientation with the rest of the universe (defined as everything one has experienced first hand). This orientation defined by the area is responsible, Newberg and D Aquili argue, for our sense of self and not-self (what is us and what is not us). Without this sense we would not be able to function in the environment because we would constantly be thinking the chair we were standing next to was part of us or that our arm was part of the chair  this would clearly lead to an impossible view of the world. The researchers concede that the process in which this occurs is not well known, but furthermore conclude that this area of the brain could be directly responsible for sensations reported in mystical experiences. The third area defined by Newberg and D Aquili is the attention association area.  The attention association area,& , plays a major role in governing complex, integrated bodily movements and behaviors associated with attaining goals.  For example, if our goal is to get some food, then we must negotiate through a series of obstacles, in the case some doors, some walls, a chair or two, and then maybe the refrigerator, all of which require a central governor to coordinate our movements towards the goal. However, this example does the area an injustice because it is even more important than just simple goal orientated movements. Newberg and D Aquili suggest that other researcher, as well as themselves, see this area as the center of our will  our ability to intentionally form thoughts that focus our attention on a goal and then attempt to actualize it. It is important in religious experience, they continue, because of its control of our emotional responses, which play a key role in religion. The last association area to describe is the verbal conceptual association area. It is this area s responsibility to  generate abstract concepts and relating those concepts to words.  This function includes naming and categorizing objects, articulating consciousness through language, and higher-order logical functions. Researchers associate a high level of activity in this area to a subject s responsiveness to religious language and ideas. Each of these areas, , working together are responsible for producing the lucid, fluid, and understandable consciousness that we know. Without these areas our world would simply be a jumble of disorientating, independent events and sensations, void of context and emotion. Now that we have studied the architecture of the cortex, lets move on to the research that has studied this immensely complex and fascinating organ. and NeurotheologyNeuroscience is the study of neurological systems, but for our discussion, we will limit it to human neurological systems, and even more simply lets move on to the researchers who have studied this immensely complex and fascinating organ.7 Ibid., 24-5. Ibid., 27.  Ibid., 29.  Ibid., 31.  Ibid., 32. # 01h/ =!"#$% The orientation association area is the second of four areas discussed. Here, because it is located in the  posterior section of the parietal lobe, has the ability to receive information about the body s sense of touch, vision, and hearing; this ability uniquely enables it to define the body s orientation with the rest of the universe (defined as everything one has experienced first hand). This orientation defined by the area is responsible, Newberg and D Aquili argue, for our sense of self and not-self (what is us and what is not us). Without this sense we would not be able to function in the environment because we would constantly be thinking the chair we were standing next to was part of us or that our arm was part of the chair  this would clearly lead to an impossible view of the world. The researchers concede that the process in which this occurs is not well known, but furthermore conclude that this area of the brain could be directly responsible for sensations reported in mys(or not so simply) to the study of the human brain. Until recently, most of the study in this area has been through trial and error. Physicians and surgeons would remove a portion of a patient s cortex for medical purposes (epilepsy, tumors, blood clots,Oh+'0  (4 P \ h t Title HereitlSergio Caltagironeergerg school_paperiroSergio Caltagirone33gMicrosoft Word 9.0@[@@@K@GR) The orientation association area is the second of four areas discussed. Here, because it is located in the  posterior section of the parietal lobe, has the ability to receive information about the body s sense of touch, vision, and hearing; this ability uniquely enables it to define the body s orientation with the rest of the universe (defined as everything one has experienced first hand). This orientation defined by the area is responsible, Newberg and D Aquili argue, for our sense of self and not-self (what is us and what is not us). Without this sense we would not be able to function in the environment because we would constantly be thinking the chair we were standing next to was part of us or that our arm was part of the chair  this would clearly lead to an impossible view of the world. The researchers concede that the process in which this occurs is not well known, but furthermore conclude that this area of the brain could be directly responsible for sensations reported in mystical experiences. The third area defined by Newberg and D Aquili is the attention association area.  The attention association area,& , plays a major role in governing complex, integrated bodily movements and behaviors associated with attaining goals.  For example, if our goal is to get some food, then we must negotiate through a series of obstacles, in the case some doors, some walls, a chair or two, and then maybe the refrigerator, all of which require a central governor to coordinate our movements towards the goal. However, this example does the area an injustice because it is even more important than just simple goal orientated movements. Newberg and D Aquili suggest that other researcher, as well as themselves, see this area as the center of our will  our ability to intentionally form thoughts that focus our attention on a goal and then attempt to actualize it. It is important in religious experience, they continue, because of its control of our emotional responses, which play a key role in religion. The last association area to describe is the verbal conceptual association area. It is this area s responsibility to  generate abstract concepts and relating those concepts to words.  This function includes naming and categorizing objects, articulating consciousness through language, and higher-order logical functions. Researchers associate a high level of activity in this area to a subject s responsiveness to religious language and ideas. Each of these areas, , working together are responsible for producing the lucid, fluid, and understandable consciousness that we know. Without these areas our world would simply be a jumble of disorientating, independent events and sensations, void of context and emotion. Now that we have studied the architecture of the corte The orientation association area is the second of four areas discussed. Here, because it is located in the  posterior section of the parietal lobe, has the ability to receive information about the body s sense of touch, vision, and hearing; this abili The orientation association area is the second of four areas discussed. Here, because it is located in the  posterior section of the parietal lobe, has the ability to receive information about the body s sense of touch, vision, and hearing; this ability uniquely enables it to define the body s orientation with the rest of the universe (defined as everything one has experienced first hand). This orientation defined by the area is responsible, Newberg and D Aquili argue, for our sense of self and not-self (what is us and what is not us). Without this sense we would not be able to function in the environment because we would constantly be thinking the chair we were standing next to was part of us or that our arm was part of the chair  this would clearlyty uniquely enables it to define the body s orientation with the rest of the universe (defined as everything one has experienced first hand). This orientation defined by the area is responsible, Newberg and D Aquili argue, for our sense of self and not-self (what is us and what is not us). Without this sense we would not be able to function in the environment because we would constantly be thinking the chair we were standing next to was part of us or that our arm was part of the chair  this would clearly lead to an impossible view of the world. The researchers concede that the process in which this occurs is not well known, but furthermore conclude that this area of the brain could be directly responsible for sensations reported in mystical experiences. The third area defined by Newberg and D Aquili is the attention association area.  The attention association area,& , plays a major role in governing complex, integrated bodily movements and behaviors associated with attaining goals.  For example, if our goal is to get some food, then we must negotiate through a series of obstacles, in the case some doors, some walls, a chair or two, and then maybe the refrigerator, all of which require a central governor to coordinate our movements towards the goal. H owever, this example does the area an injustice because it is even more important than just simple goal orientated movements. Newberg and D Aquili suggest that other researcher, as well as themselves, see this area as the center of our will  our ability to intentionally form thoughts that focus our attention on a goal and then attempt to actualize it. It is important in religious experience, they continue, because of its control of our emotional responses, which play a key role in religion. The last ass etc.), and then study the patient after the surgery to determine the amount of loss, if any, of bodily and mental function. If the patient did lose some function, then researchers simply attributed function in the area of the brain removed to the function lost in the patient. Surprisingly, this got us a long way to understanding the human brain, psyche, and neurological processes. However, with today s technology, less destructive methods can be used to attain an even greater wealth of knowledge because lead to an impossible view of the world. The researchers concede that the process in which this occurs is not well known, but furthermore conclude that this area of the brain could be directly responsible for sensations reported in mystical experiences. The third area defined by Newberg and D Aquili is the attention association area.  The attention association area,& , plays a major role in governing complex, integrated bodily movements and behaviors associated with attaining goals.  For example, if our goal is to get some food, then we must negotiate through a series of obstacles, in the case some doors, some walls, a chair or two, and then maybe the refrigerator, all of which require a central governor to coordinate our movements towards the goal. However, this example does the area an injustice because it is even more important than just simple goal orientated movements. Newberg and D Aquili suggest that other researcher, as well as themselves, see this area as the center of our will  our ability to intentionally form thoughts that focus our attention on a goal and then attempt to actualize it. It is important in religious experience, they continue, because of its control of our emotional responses, which play a key role in religion. The last association area to describe is the verbal conceptual association area. It is this area s responsibility to  generate abstract concepts and relating those concepts to words.  This function includes naming and categorizing objects, articulating consciousness through language, and higher-order logical functions. Researchers associate a high level of activity in this area to a subject s responsiveness to religious language and ideas. Each of these areas, , working together are responsible for producing theociation area to describe is the verbal conceptual association area. It is this area s responsibility to  generate abstract concepts and relating those concepts to words.  This function includes naming and categorizing objects, articulating consciousness through language, and higher-order logical functions. Researchers associate a high level of activity in this area to a subject s responsiveness to religious language and ideas. Each of these areas, , working together are responsible for producing the lucid, fluid, and understandable consciousness that we know. Without these areas our world would simply be a jumble of disorientating, independent events and sensations, void of context and emotion. Now that we have studied the architecture of the cortex, lets move on to the research that has studied this immensely complex and fascinating organ. and NeurotheologyNeuroscience is the study of neurological systems, but for our discussion, we will limit it to human neurological systems, and even more simply (or not so simply) to the study of the human brain. Until recently, most of the study in this area has been through trial and error. Physicians and surgeons would remove a portion of a patient s cortex for medical purposes (epilepsy, tumors, blood clots, etc.), and then study the patient after the surgery to determine the amount of loss, if any, of bodily and mental function. If the patient did lose some function, then researchers simply attributed function in the area of the brain removed to the function lost in the patient. Surprisingly, this got us a long way to understanding the human brain, psyche, and neurological processes. However, with today s technology, less destructive methods can be used to attain an even greater wealth of knowledge because of the ability to precisely control experiments, although we still study brain-surgery patients. There are two primary methods of studying neurological patterns in the brain, EEG (electroencephalography) which measures electrical activity, and SPECT (sing The orientation association area is the second of four areas discussed. Here, because it is located in the  posterior section of the parietal lobe, has the ability to receive information about the body s sense of touch, vision, and hearing; this abili of the ability to precisely control experiments, although we still study brain-surgery patients. 6 Ibid., 24-5. Ibid., 27.  Ibid., 29.  Ibid., 31.  Ibid., 32. lucid, fluid, and understandable consciousness that we know. Without these areas our world would simply be a jumble of disorientating, independent events and sensations, void of context and emotion. Now that we have studied the architecture of the cortety uniquely enables it to define the body s orientation with the rest of the universe (defined as everything one has experienced first hand). This orientation defined by the area is responsible, Newberg and D Aquili argue, for our sense of self and not-self (what is us and what is not us). Without this sense we would not be able to function in the environment because we would constantly be thinking the chair we were standing next to was part of us or that our arm was part of the chair  this would clearly lead to an impossible view of the world. The researchers concede that the process in which this occurs is not well known, but furthermore conclude that this area of the brain could be directly responsible for sensations reported in mystical experiences. The third area defined by Newberg and D Aquili is the attention association area.  The attention association area,& , plays a major role in governing complex, integrated bodily movements and behaviors associated with attaining goals.  For example, if our goal is to get some food, then we must negotiate through a series of obstacles, in the case some doors, some walls, a chair or two, and then maybe the refrigerator, all of which require a central governor to coordinate our movements towards the goal. However, this example does the area an injustice because it is even more important than just simple goal orientated movements. Newberg and D Aquili suggest that other researcher, as well as themselves, see this area as the center of our will  our ability x, lets move on to the research that has studied this immensely complex and fascinating organ. and NeurotheologyNeuroscience is the study of neurological systems, but for our discussion, we will limit it to human neurological systems, and even more simply (or not so simply) to the study of the human brain. Until recently, most of the study in this area has been through trial and error. Physicians and surgeons would remove a portion of a patient s cortex for medical purposes (epilepsy, tumors, blood clots, etc.), and then study the patient after the surgery to determine the amount of loss, if any, of bodily and mental function. If the patient did lose some function, then researchers simply attributed function in the area of the brain removed to the function lost in the patient. Surprisingly, this got us a long way to understanding the human brain, psyche, and neurological processes. However, with today s technology, less destructive methods can be used to attain an even greater wealth of knowledge because of the ability to precisely control experiments, although we still study brain-surgery patients. There are two primary methods of studying neurological patterns in the brain, EEG (electroencephalography) which measures electrical activity, and SPECT (single photon emission computed tomography)  measuring blood flow through a radioactive dye injected into the bloodstream. Although neither method is perfect, both allow for a non-destructive method of analyzing brain activity in a moment.7 Ibid., 24-5. Ibid., 27.  Ibid., 29.  Ibid., 31.  Ibid., 32. ՜.+,0 hp  RBA Internationale Y>32  Title Here TitleaperiroSergio Caltagirone33gMicrosoft Word 9.0@[@@@K@GR) The orientation association area is the second of four areas discussed. Here, because it is located in the  posterior section of the parietal lobe, has the ability to receive information about the body s sense of touch, vision, and hearing; this ability uniquely enables it to define the body s orientation with the rest of the universe (defined as everything one has experienced first hand). This orientation defined by the area is responsible, Newberg and D Aquili argue, for our sense of self and not-self (what is us and what is not us). Without this sense we would not be able to function in the environment because we would constantly be thinking the chair we were standing next to was part of us or that our arm was part of the chair  this would clearly lead to an impossible view of the world. The researchers concede that the process in which this occurs is not well known, but furthermore conclude that this area of the brain could be directly responsible for sensations reported in mystical experiences. The third area defined by Newberg and D Aquili is the attention association area.  The attention association area,& , plays a major role in governing complex, integrated bodily movements and behaviors associated with attaining goals.  For example, if our goal is to get some food, then we must negotiate through a series of obstacles, in the case some doors, some walls, a chair or two, and then maybe the refrigerator, all of which require a central governor to coordinate our movements towards the goal. However, this example does the area an injustice because it is even more important than just simple goal orientated movements. Newberg and D Aquili suggest that other researcher, as well as themselves, see this area as the center of our will  our ability to intentionally form thoughts that focus our attention on a goal and then attempt to actualize it. It is important in religious experience, they continue, because of its control of our emotional responses, which play a key role in religion. The last association area to describe is the verbal conceptual association area. It is this area s responsibility to  generate abstract concepts and relating those concepts to words.  This function includes naming and categorizing objects, articulating consciousness through language, and higher-order logical functions. Researchers associate a high level of activity in this area to a subject s responsiveness to religious language and ideas. Each of these areas, , working together are responsible for producing the lucid, fluid, and understandable consciousness that we know. Without these areas our world would simply be a jumble of disorientating, independent events and sensations, void of context and emotion. Now that we have studied the architecture of the cortex, lets move on to the research that has studied this immensely complex and fascinating organ. and NeurotheologyNeuroscience is the study of neurological systems, but for our discussion, we will limit it to human neurological systems, and even more simply (or not so simply) to the study of the human brain. Until recently, most of the study in this area has been through trial and error. Physicians and surgeons would remove a portion of a patient s cortex for medical purposes (epilepsy, tumors, blood clots, etc.), and then study the patient after the surgery to determine the amount of loss, if any, of bodily and mental function. If the patient did lose some function, then researchers simply attributed function in the area of the brain removed to the function lost in the patient. Surprisingly, this got us a long way to understanding the human brain, psyche, and neurological processes. However, with today s technology, less destructive methods can be used to attain an even greater wealth of knowledge because of the ability to precisely control experiments, although we still study brain-surgery patients. There are two primary methods of studying neurological patterns in the brain, EEG (electroencephalography) which measures electrical activity, and SPECT (singto intentionally form thoughts that focus our attention on a goal and then attempt to actualize it. It is important in religious experience, they continue, because of its control of our emotional responses, which play a key role in religion. The last association area to describe is the verbal conceptual association area. It is this area s responsibility to  generate abstract concepts and relating those concepts to words.  This function includes naming and categorizing objects, articulating consciousnele photon emission computed tomography)  measuring blood flow through a radioactive dye injected into the bloodstream. Although neither method is perfect, both allow for a non-destructive method of analyzing brain activity in a moment. Using this technolss through language, and higher-order logical functions. Researchers associate a high level of activity in this area to a subject s responsiveness to religious language and ideas. Each of these areas, , working together are responsible for producing theogy, researchers such as Andrew Newberg, Eugene D Aquili, and _______ have set their sights on understanding the relationship between brain function and religion.7 Ibid., 24-5. Ibid., 27.  Ibid., 29.  Ibid., 31.  Ibid., 32. AlEPBXY,ZFZ`ZzZ|Z~Z^fmlq|BTXډxz|  !d`  !d The orientation association area is the second of four areas discussed. Here, because it is located in the  posterior section of the parietal lobe, has the ability to receive information about the body s sense of touch, vision, and hearing; this ability uniquely enables it to define the body s orientation with the rest of the universe (defined as everything one has experienced first hand). This orientation defined by the area is responsible, Newberg and D Aquili argue, for our sense of self and not-self (what is us and what is not us). Without this sense we would not be able to function in the environment because we would constantly be thinking the chair we were standing next to was part of us or that our arm was part of the chair  this would clearly lead to an impossible view of the world. The researchers concede that the process in which this occurs is not well known, but furthermore conclude that this area of the brain could be directly responsible for sensations reported in mystical experiences. The third area defined by Newberg and D Aquili is the attention association area.  The attention association area,& , plays a major role in governing complex, integrated bodily movements and behaviors associated with attaining goals.  For example, if o lucid, fluid, and understandable consciousness that we know. Without these areas our world would simply be a jumble of disorientating, independent events and sensations, void of context and emotion. Now that we have studied the architecture of the cortex, lets move on to the research that has studied this immensely complex and fascinating organ. and NeurotheologyNeuroscience is the study of neurological systems, but for our discussion, we will limit it to human neurological systems, and even more simply (or not so simply) to the study of the human brain. Until recently, most of the study in this area has been through trial and error. Physicians and surgeons would remove a portion of a patient s cortex for medical purposes (epilepsy, tumors, blood clots, etc.), and then study the patient after the surgery to determine the amount of loss, if any, of bodily and mental function. If the patient did lose some function, then researchers simply attributed function in the area of the brain removed to the function lost in the patient. Surprisingly, this got us a long way to understanding the human brain, psyche, and neurological processes. However, with today s technology, less destructive methods can be used to attain an even greater wealth of knowledge because of the ability to precisely control experiments, although we still study brain-surgery patients. There are three primary methods of studying neurological patterns in the brain, EEG (electroencephalography) which measures electrical activity, MRI (magnetic resonance imaging), PET (positron emission tomography), and SPECT (single photon emission computed tomography)  measuring blood flow through a radioactive dye injected into the bloodstream. Although no method is perfect, they allow for a non-destructive method of analyzing brain activity in a moment. If any method shows an increase in electrical activity, or increased blood flow to a certain portion of the brain, it is certain that the brain is focusing more of its resources on functions that portion provides. So, an increase in blood flow to the orientation association area would equate to the brain spending more time in computation and analysis in figuring out the self; the opposite is also correct: a decrease in blood flow equates to a decrease in focus on that particular function. Using this understanding, neuroscientists such as Andrew Newberg, Eugene D Aquili, Michael Persinger, and Jeffery A. Dusek have set their sights on understanding the relationship between brain function and religion. 7 IbijD/F/b/d/|/~//////2;;ZC\ChEjEYYZZ,Z.ZFZHZ`ZbZ~Z^ggZo\ohqjqPRTVrt‰ډ܉J|Hj>vn,Ґ\Jn–2~LZCJ$mHnHu6] j0JU0JmHnHuZ(ڝh8^ة:$L6ή4¯ƹ>`4ld"Ⱦֿ ` VrBhD.V @>CJ$mHnHu0JmHnHu6]Oger,  Vectorial Cerebral hemisphericity as differential sources for the sensed presence, mystical experiences, and religious conversions (Perceptual and Motor Skills : 76, 1993) 915-930. 26November2002 References GLYNN P. God: The Evidence. Rocklin, CA: Forum, 1997. GOMORY, R.E. The Known, the Unknown and the Unknowable. Scientific American, 1995, 120. HAUGHT, J.F. What is Religion: An Introduction. New York: Paulist Press, 1990. ____________. What is God: How to Think About the Divine. New York: Paulist Press, 1986. NEWBERG, A., D AQUILI, E., & RAUSE, V. Why God Wont Go Away. New York: Ballantine, 2001. PERSINGER, M.A. Vectorial Cerebral Hemisphericity as Differential Sources for the Sensed Presence, Mystical Experiences and Religious Conversions . Perceptual And Motor Skills, 1993, 76, 915-930. ____________. Religious and Mystical Experiences as Artifacts of Temporal Lobe Function: A General Hypothesis. Perceptual and Motor Skills, 1983, 57, 1255- 1262. TILBY, A. Soul: God, Self, and the New Cosmology. New York: Doubleday, 1992.8 26November2002Persinger explains his motives for understanding religious experiences through neurobiology with regard to cults and those willing to take innocent human life because of differences in beliefs,  If clinical strategies could access these same ur goal is to get some food, then we must negotiate through a series of obstacles, in the case some doors, some walls, a chair or two, and then maybe the refrigerator, all of which require a central governor to coordinate our movements towards the goal. However, this example does the area an injustice because it is even more important than just simple goal orientated movements. Newberg and D Aquili suggest that other researcher, as well as themselves, see this area as the center of our will  our ability to intentionally form thoughts that focus our attention on a goal and then attempt to actualize it. It is important in religious experience, they continue, because of its control of our emotional responses, which play a key role in religion. The last association area to describe is the verbal conceptual association area. It is this area s responsibility to  generate abstract concepts and relating those concepts to words.  This function includes naming and categorizing objects, articulating consciousness through language, and higher-order logical functions. Researchers associate a high level of activity in this area to a subject s responsiveness to religious language and ideas. Each of these areas, , working together are responsible for producing the lucid, fluid, and understandable consciousness that we know. Without these areas our world would simply be a jumble of disorientating, independent events and sensations, void of context and emotion. Now that we have studied the architecture of the cortex, lets move on to the research that has studied this immensely complex and fascinating organ. and NeurotheologyNeuroscience is the study of neurological systems, but for our discussion, we will limit it to human neurological systems, and even more simply (or not so simply) to the study of the human brain. Until recently, most of the study in this area has been through trial and error. Physicians and surgeons would remove a portion of a patient s cortex for medical purposes (epilepsy, tumors, blood clots, etc.), and then study the patient after the surgery to determine the amount of loss, if any, of bodily and mental function. If the patient did lose some function, then researchers simply attributed function in the area of the brain removed to the function lost in the patient. Surprisingly, this got us a long way to understanding the human brain, psyche, and neurological processes. However, with today s technology, less destructive methods can be used to attain an even greater wealth of knowledge because of the ability to precisely control experiments, although we still study brain-surgery patients. There are three primary methods of studying neurological patterns in the brain, EEG (electroencephalography) which measures electrical activity, MRI (magnetic resonance imaging), PET (positron emission tomography), and SPECT (single photon emission computed tomography)  measuring blood flow through a radioactive dye injected into the bloodstream. Although no method is perfect, they allow for a non-destructive method of analyzing brain activity in a moment. If any method shows an increase in electrical activity, or increased blood flow to a certain portion of the brain, it is certain that the brain is focusing more of its resources on functions that portion provides. So, an increase in blood flow to the orientation association area would equate to the brain spending more time in computation and analysis in figuring out the self; the opposite is also correct: a decrease in blood flow equates to a decrease in fod., 24-5. Ibid., 27.  Ibid., 29.  Ibid., 31.  Ibid., 32. (ڝh8^ة:$L6ή4¯ƹ>`4ld"Ⱦֿ ` VCJ$mHnHu0JmHnHu6]7cus on that particular function. Using this understanding, neuroscientists such as Andrew Newberg, Eugene D Aquili, Michael Persinger, and Jeffery A. Dusek have set their sights on understanding the relationship between brain function and religion  neurotheology. Each used a different experimental method, yet amazingly came to similar conclusions. In 1993, Michael Persinger attached a small lightweight helmet to numerous human subjects. The helmet then produced a weak electromagnetic field around the subZf¯*8P<b0< !`26November2002Persinger explains his motives for understanding religious experiences through neurobiology with regard to cults and those willing to take innocent human life because of differences in beliefs,  If clinical strategies could access these same fundamental neurocognitive processes, then both the efficiency and effect of counseling tactics could be increased remarkably. (Persinger, 1993, 916) There have been two seminal experiments in the area of neurotheology, e8Although some patients reported experiencing nothing, most had either an out-of-body experience, or, a mystical religious experience. Persinger attributes these experiences to  a transient (a few seconds), very focal, electrical display within the temporal lobe. (Persinger, 1983, 1257). He concludes that although the experiences of the subjects are relatively the same,  the content of TLT experiences would reflect the person s learning history (referencing Allah versus Jehovah). References BOYER, P. Religion Explained. New York: Basic Books, 2001. GLYNN P. God: The Evidence. Rocklin, CA: Forum, 1997. GOMORY, R.E. The Known, the Unknown and the Unknowable. Scientific American, 1995, 120. HAUGHT, J.F. What is Religion: An Introduction. New York: Paulist Press, 1990. ____________. What is God: How to Think About the Divine. New York: Paulist Press, 1986. NEWBERG, A., D AQUILI, E., & RAUSE, V. Why God Wont Go Away. New York: Ballantine, 2001. PERSINGER, M.A. Vectorial Cerebral Hemisphericity as Differential Sources for the Sensed Presence, Mystical Experiences and Religious Conversions . Perceptual And Motor Skills, 1993, 76, 915-930. ____________. Religious and Mystical Experiences as Artifacts of Temporal Lobe Function: A General Hypothesis. Perceptual and Motor Skills, 1983, 57, 1255- 1262. POLKINGHORNE, J. Belief in God in an Age of Science. New Haven, CT: Yale U. Press, 1998. TILBY, A. Soul: God, Self, and the New Cosmology. New York: Doubleday, 1992.8  i8@8 NormalCJ_HaJmH sH tH 6@6 Heading 1$$@&a$CJ46@6 Heading 2$$@&a$CJ$N@N Heading 3$<@&5CJOJQJ\^JaJ<A@< Default Paragraph Font,@, Header  !&)@& Page Number, @, Footer  !<C@"< Body Text Indent ^4+@24 Endnote TextCJaJ6*@A6 Endnote ReferenceH*6@R6 Footnote TextCJaJ8&@a8 Footnote ReferenceH* fi3n3R123456789:;P_zA@JOG hk !$(+..../T/`//0 0V0i00 111111$22222222223<3L3[3h3u3333000000000000000000000000000000P00P0P(0P0@0@0@0@0@0@0@0@0@0@(0000000000000000000000000@0@0@0@0@0 ject s temporal lobes. The results were astonishing. Four in five subjects reported a mystic religious experience, consistent with past documented mystic experiences. 8 Ibid., 24-5. Ibid., 27.  Ibid., 29.  Ibid., 31.  Ibid., 32.  Michael A. Persin|4BZFl:F4ԗv . !`@0@0@0@0@0@0@0@0 (((((+yj$D;/"kFA|%'(7a$&z3 #%+!!t////W0a022222233' 6   WYhoO$Z$_%d%--......"/)/U/Y///=0A0W0h000 1011 222222B3D3R3T3a3c3n3p3{3}3333333333333333333333333333333Sergio CaltagironeSD:\Webs\sergio\papers\school_papers\Theology\religion_afundamental neurocognitive processes, then both the efficiency and effect of counseling tactics could be increased remarkably. (Persinger, 1993, 916) There have been two seminal experiments in the area of neurotheology, e References BOYER, P. Religion Explained. New York: Basic Books, 2001. GLYNN P. God: The Evidence. Rocklin, CA: Forum, 1997. GOMORY, R.E. The Known, the Unknown and the Unknowable. Scientific American, 1995, 120. HAUGHT, J.F. What is Religion: An Introduction. New York: Paulist Press, 1990. ____________. What is God: How to Think About the Divine. New York: Paulist Press, 1986. NEWBERG, A., D AQUILI, E., & RAUSE, V. Why God Wont Go Away. New York: Ballantine, 2001. PERSINGER, M.A. Vectorial Cerebral Hemisphericity as Differential Sources for the Sensed Presence, Mystical Experiences and Religious Conversions . Perceptual And Motor Skills, 1993, 76, 915-930. ____________. Religious and Mystical Experiences as Artifacts of Temporal Lobe Function: A General Hypothesis. nd_science\neurotheology.docSergio CaltagironeSD:\Webs\sergio\papers\school_papers\Theology\religion_and_science\neurotheology.docSergio CaltagironemC:\Documents and Settings\scaltagirone\Application Data\Microsoft\Word\AutoRecovery save of neurotheology.asdSergio CaltagironemC:\Documents and Settings\scaltagirone\Application Data\Microsoft\Word\AutoRecovery save of neurotheology.asdSergio CaltagironemC:\Documents and Settings\scaltagirone\Application Data\Microsoft\Word\AutoRecovery save of neurotheology.asdSergio CaltagironemC:\Documents and Settings\scaltagirone\Application Data\Microsoft\Word\AutoRecovery save of neurotheology.asdSergio CaltagironemC:\Documents and Settings\scaltagirone\Application Data\Microsoft\Word\AutoRecovery save of neurotheology.asdSergio CaltagironemC:\Documents and Settings\scaltagirone\Application Data\Microsoft\Word\AutoRecovery save of neurotheology.asdSergio CaltagironemC:\Documents and Settings\scaltagirone\Application Data\Microsoft\Word\AutoRecovery save of neurotheology.asdSergio CaltagironeSD:\Webs\sergio\papers\school_papers\Theology\religion_and_science\neurotheology.doc@..\t.-C$Eƀb'mHnHu5F^`GCJ4sH tH aJ_H0J 6] 89Khir"#NY4;>Yy!"MNmnAJKakmx:CN[\?ENOQ_`cs 13{|NOd 6 L U \ !!!?!J!U!l!!!!!!""&"."/"R"S"U"["a"|"""" ##X#d#}#######%$'$($t$}$$$$$$$$%%&%B%C%F%G%^%h%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%&&&&1&O&\&t&&&&&&''>'H'j''''(((((((((()))))+)1)5):);)S)W)l)r){))))))))))))*Z*\*]********+ + + + ++%+A+i+l+w++++++++++++,M,R,S,c,e,f,,,,,,,,,,,---I-J-U-e-g-------...H.I.~................//?/R/S/T/_/`/n//////////00 0 000"0*050I0L0U0V0h0i000000001 1 1 111011111111111111 2#2$2122272=2c2f2222222M3Z3[3]3g3h3j3t3u3w3333333330@11 @11 @10F @0@1^0^1^1^1&^1>^1L^1~^1^1^1^1^1^1._10_12_1X_1f_1h_1_1_1`1`1`1R`1T`1`1`1a1a1@a1ha1a1a1a1a1b1Fb1Fc1c1c1c1c1c1c1d1vd1d1d1d1e1be1ze0e1f1Pf1Rf1f1f1f1f1g1g1g1g1h1h1h14i1Li1zi1i1i1j1j1j1j1k1k1k1k1k1,l1Fl1l1l1l1l1l1m0m1m1m1n1n1n1n1n1n1n1n1n1Vo1Xo1Zo1\o1`o1o1o1o1o1o1p1p1&p1pp1tp1q1q1hq0jq1nq1q1q1:@1q1q1q1r1r1r1Dr1^r1zr1r1s1hs1s1s1s1.t1Ht1Pt1t1t1t0|C@1t0C@1t1t1u1^u1tu1u1u1u1&v1,v1:v1fv1v1w1,w1w1w1w1w1w1w1w1Zx1hx1jx1x1y1y1y1y1y1z1,z10z1Hz1zz1*{1.{10{1{1{1|1J|1^|1`|1|0|1|1|1 }1,}1d}1f}1l}1n}1}1}1}1}1~1*~1`~1l~1r~1~1~1~1~1~1~1~1~1~1~11B1~11111(1`1p111\1p111\1110@1B1X1r1v11ք1؄11111161B1J1T1V1111ą1օ1111111b1|111Ҳ11111111111111111"121j111,1<1@1X1Z1n011Ɔ11̆11^1؇11111 1µ111181L111111ʶ1̶1$1&1<1\1`11з1ҷ1ַ111111"1$1110R110011ƹ110(1*1>1`0111406180N1P1l111Ļ1ƻ10111d01011Ƽ1ȼ1Լ111"1(0:1<0`1b0ν11>1T126November2002 References BOYER, P. Religion Explained. New York: Basic Books, 2001. GLYNN P. God: The Evidence. Rocklin, CA: Forum, 1997. GOMORY, R.E. The Known, the Unknown and the Unknowable. Scientific American, 1995, 120. HAUGHT, J.F. What is 11011111Ⱦ010111ֿ1 1 0.100:1<1`1010111 1V1\0|I@0LD@10D@00H@1X0xI@1r1v0110111011ĉ0؉00|I@UnknownGz Times New Roman5Symbol3& z Arial"qh kkF N)X!24d#32\C:\Documents and Settings\scaltagirone\Application Data\Microsoft\Templates\school_paper.dot Title HereSergio CaltagironeSergio Caltagirone#O Subject: neurotheology Date: Mon, 25 Nov 2002 23:43:17 -0800 MIME-Version: 1.0 Content-Type: text/plain; charset="iso-8859-1" Content-Transfer-Encoding: 7bit X-Priority: 3 X-MSMail-Priority: Normal X-MimeOLE: Produced By Microsoft MimeOLE V5.50.4910.0300 1t1t1t0|C@1t0C@1t1t1u1^u1tu1u1u1u1&v1,v1:v1fv1v1w1,w1w1w1w1wk $bjbj}}2)l```t 8 $ \t-t  " $. 0>` d 48( -d d d X` ` d d ~ d `` h @¥It<  `-0- 2'd 03d tt``Root Entry F@¥I1Table03WordDocumentSummaryInformation( Perceptual and Motor Skills, 1983, 57, 1255- 1262. POLKINGHORNE, J. Belief in God in an Age of Science. New Haven, CT: Yale U. Press, 1998. TILBY, A. Soul: God, Self, and the New Cosmology. New York: Doubleday, 1992.8 ^l&p<&dp ( !`*v\xاڧTĨbzƪԪf2Ь !` i8@8 NormalCJ_HaJmH sH tH 6@6 Heading 1$$@&a$CJ46@6 Heading 2$$@&a$CJ$N@N Heading 3$<@&5CJOJQJ\^JaJ<A@< Default Paragraph Font,@, Header  !&)@& Page Number, @, Footer  !<C@"< Body Text Indent ^4+@24 Endnote TextCJaJ6*@A6 Endnote ReferenceH*6@R6 Footnote TextCJaJ8&@a8 Footnote ReferenceH* fi -2n2R123456789:;P_zA@JOG hk !$(+ ---U----9.....D/// 0X0^000 1111011121111111 2222000000000000000000000000000000P0P0P0P(0P0@0@0@0@0@0@0@0@0@0@(0000000000000000000000000@0@0@0@0@0 @0@0@0@0@0@0@0@0@0 (((((+yj¯$D;/"kFA|¯%'(7a$&z2 #%+!!t$.+..... 11121^1c111C2Q22' 6   WYhoO$Z$_%d%-!-#-6-U-]-----b.g....._/j///p00 11121K1S1111111112222222333333333333333333333333333Sergio CaltagironeSD:\Webs\sergio\papers\school_papers\Theology\religion_and_science\neurotheology.docSergio CaltagironeSD:\Webs\sergio\papers\school_papers\Theology\religion_and_science\neurotheology.docSergio CaltagironemC:\Documents and Settings\scaltagirone\Application Data\Microsoft\Word\AutoRecovery save of neurotheology.asdSergio CaltagironemC:\Documents and Settings\scaltagirone\Application Data\Microsoft\Word\AutoRecovery save of neurotheology.asdSergio CaltagironemC:\Documents and Settings\scaltagirone\Application Data\Microsoft\Word\AutoRecovery save of neurotheology.asdSergio CaltagironemC:\Documents and Settings\scaltagirone\Application Data\Microsoft\Word\AutoRecovery save of neurotheology.asdSergio CaltagironemC:\Documents and Settings\scaltagirone\Application Data\Microsoft\Word\AutoRecovery save of neurotheology.asdSergio CaltagironemC:\Documents and Settings\scaltagirone\Application Data\Microsoft\Word\AutoRecovery save of neurotheology.asdSergio CaltagironemC:\Documents and Settings\scaltagirone\Application Data\Microsoft\Word\AutoRecovery save of neurotheology.asdSergio CaltagironeSD:\Webs\sergio\papers\school_papers\Theology\religion_and_science\neurotheology.doc@))\t))C$Eƀb'mHnHu5F^`GCJ4sH tH aJ_H0J 6]( 89Khir"#NY4;>Yy!"MNmnAJKakmx:CN[\?ENOQ_`cs 13{|NOd 6 L U \ !!!?!J!U!l!!!!!!""&"."/"R"S"U"["a"|"""" ##X#d#}#######%$'$($t$}$$$$$$$$%%&%B%C%F%G%^%h%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%&&&&1&O&\&t&&&&&&''>'H'jReligion: An Introduction. New York: Paulist Press, 1990. ____________. What is God: How to Think About the Divine. New York: Paulist Press, 1986. NEWBERG, A., D AQUILI, E., & RAUSE, V. Why God Wont Go Away. New York: Ballantine, 2001. PERSINGER, M.A. Vectorial Cerebral Hemisphericity as Differential Sources for the Sensed Presence, Mystical Experiences and Religious Conversions . Perceptual And Motor Skills, 1993, 76, 915-930. ____________. Religious and Mystical Experiences as Artifacts of Temporal Lobe Function: A General Hypothesis. Perceptual and Motor Skills, 1983, 57, 1255- 1262. POLKINGHORNE, J. Belief in God in an Age of Science. New Haven, CT: Yale U. Press, 1998. TILBY, A. Soul: God, Self, and the New Cosmology. New York: Doubleday, 1992.8      @ABCDocumentSummaryInformation84CompObjjObjectPool@ @ 0Table226November2002Persinger explains his motives for understanding religious experiences through neurobiology with regard to cults and those willing to take innocent human life because of differences in beliefs,  If clinical strategies could access these same fundamental neurocognitive processes, then both the efficiency and effect of counseling tactics could be increased remarkably. (Persinger, 1993, 916) There have been two seminal experiments in the area of neurotheology, e8Although some patients reported experiencing nothing, most had either an out-of-body experience, or, a mystical religious experience. Persinger attributes these experiences to  a transient (a few seconds), very focal, electrical display within the temporal lobe. (Persinger, 1983, 125  FMicrosoft Word Document MSWordDocWord.Document.89q՜.+,0 hp  RBA Internationale X#32  Title Here TitleOh+'0  (4 P \ h t Title HereitlSergio Caltagironeergerg school_paperiroSergio Caltagirone32gMicrosoft Word 9.0@[@@@K@GN)7). He concludes that although the experiences of the subjects are relatively the same,  the content of TLT experiences would reflect the person s learning history (referencing Allah versus Jehovah). (Persinger, 1983, 1257). References BOYER, P. 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New York: Basic Books, 2001. GLYNN P. God: The Evidence. Rocklin, CA: Forum, 1997. GOMORY, R.E. The Known, the Unknown and the Unknowable. Scientific American, 1995, 120. HAUGHT, J.F. What is Religion: An Introduction. New York: Paulist Press, 1990. ____________. What is God: How to Think About the Divine. New York: Paulist Press, 1986. NEWBERG, A., D AQUILI, E., & RAUSE, V. Why God Wont Go Away. New York: Ballantine, 2001. PERSINGER, M.A. Vectorial Cerebral Hemisphericity as Differential Sources for the Sensed Presence, Mystical Experiences and Religious Conversions . Perceptual And Motor Skills, 1993, 76, 915-930. ____________. Religious and Mystical Experiences as Artifacts of Temporal Lobe Function: A General Hypothesis. Perceptual and Motor Skills, 1983, 57, 1255- 1262. POLKINGHORNE, J. Belief in God in an Age of Science. New Haven, CT: Yale U. Press, 1998. TILBY, A. Soul: God, Self, and the New Cosmology. 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